Small Hydro Site
How to Develop a Small Hydro Site
1.Introduction
1.0 A free fuel resource potentially everlasting.
1.1 Definition of small hydropower
1.2 Site configurations
1.2.1 Run-of-river schemes
1.2.2 Schemes with the powerhouse at the base of a dam
1.2.3 Schemes integrated with an irrigation canal
1.2.4 Schemes integrated in a water abstraction system
1.3 Planning a small hydropower scheme
2. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Water flow in pipes
2.1.1 Los of head due to friction
2.1.2 Loss of head due to turbulence
2.1.2.1 Trash rack (or screen) losses
2.1.2.2 Loss of head by sudden contraction or expansion
2.1.2.3 Loss of head in bends
2.1.2.4 Loss of head through valves
2.1.3 Transient flow
2.2 Water flow in open channels
2.2.1 Clasification of open channel flows
2.3.2 Uniform flow in open channels
2.2.3 Principles of energy in open channel flows
2.3 Computer programs
3 The water resource and its potential
3.0 Introduction
3.2 Evaluating streamflows by discharge measurements
3.2.1 Velocity-area method
3.2.1.1 Measuring the cross-sectional area
3.2.1.2 Measuring the velocity
3.2.3 Weir method
3.2.4 Slope-area method
3.3 Streamflow characteristics
3.3.1 Hydrograph
3.3.2 Flow Duration Curves (FDC)
3.3.3 Standardised FDC curves
3.3.4 Evaluating streamflows at ungauged sites
3.3.5 European Atlas of Small Scale Hydropower Resources
3.3.6 FDC.s for particular months or other periods
3.3.7 Water pressure or .head.
3.3.7.1 Measurement of gross head
3.3.7.2 Estimation of net head
3.4 Residual, reserved or compensation flow
3.5 Estimation of plant capacity and energy output
3.5.1 How the head varies with the flow and its influence on the turbine capacity
3.5.2 Another methodology to compute power and annual energy output
3.5.3 Peaking operation
3.6 Firm energy
Bibliography
4. Site evaluation methodologies
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Cartography
4.2 Geotechnical studies
4.2.1 Methodologies to be used
Photogeology.
Geomorphologic maps
Laboratory analysis
Geophysical studies
Structural geological analysis
Direct investigations. Borehole drilling
4.2.2 Methodologies. The study of a practical case.
4.2.2.1 The weir
4.2.2.2 The open channel
4.2.2.3 The channel in tunnel.
4.2.2.4 The powerhouse
4.3 Learning from failures
Ruahihi canal failure (New Zealand)
La Marea canal failure (Spain)
Seepage under a weir (France)
The hydraulic canal in a low-head 2 MW scheme
5. Hydraulic structures
5.1 Structures for storage and water intake
5.1.1 Dams
5.1.2 Weirs
5.1.2.1 Devices to raise the water level.
5.1.3 Spillways
5.1.4 Energy dissipators
5.1.5 Low level outlets
5.1.6 River diversion during construction
5.2 Waterways
5.2.1 Intake structures
5.2.1.1 Water intake types
5.2.1.2 Intake location
5.2.2 Power intake
5.2.3 Mechanical equipment
5.2.3.1 Debris management in intakes
5.2.3.2 Sediment management in intakes
5.2.3.3 Gates and valves
5.2.4 Open channels
5.2.4.1 Design and dimensioning
5.2.4.2 Circumventing obstacles
5.2.5 Penstocks
5.2.5.1 Arrangement and material selection for penstocks.
5.2.5.2 Hydraulic design and structural requirements
Penstock diameter.
Wall thickness
5.2.5.3 Saddles, supporting blocks and expansion joints
5.2.6 Tailraces
6 Electromechanical equipment
6.0 Powerhouse
6.1 Hydraulic turbines
6.1.1 Classification criteria
6.1.1.1 On the basis of the flow regime in the turbine
6.1.1.1.1 Impulse turbines
Pelton turbines
Turgo turbines
Cross-flow turbines
6.1.1.1.2 Reaction turbines
Francis turbines
Kaplan and propeller turbines
Pumps working as turbines
6.1.1.2 On the basis of the specific speed
6.1.2 Turbine selection criteria
6.1.3 Turbine efficiency
6.1.4 Turbine performance characteristics
6.1.5 Turbine performance under new site conditions
6.2 Speed increasers
Parallel-shaft
Bevel gears:
Epicycloidal:
6.2.2 Speed increaser design
6.2.3 Speed increaser maintenance
6.3 Generators
6.3.1 Generator configurations
6.3.3 Voltage regulation and synchronisation
6.3.3.1 Asynchronous generators
6.3.3.2 Synchronous generators
6.4 Turbine control
6.4.1 Speed Governors
6.5 Switchgear equipment
6.6 Automatic control
6.7 Ancillary electrical equipment
6.7.1 Plant service transformer
6.7.2 DC control power supply
6.7.3 Headwater and tailwater recorders
6.7.4 Outdoor substation
6.8 Examples
Bibliography
7. Environmental impact and its mitigation
7.0 Introduction.
7.1 Burdens and impacts identification
7.2 Impacts in the construction phase
7.2.1 Reservoirs
7.2.2 Water intakes, open canals, penstocks, tailraces, etc.
7.3 Impacts arising from the operation of the scheme
7.3.1 Sonic impacts
7.3.2 Landscape impact
7.3.3 Biological impacts
7.3.4 Archaeological and cultural objects
7.4 Impacts from transmission lines
7.4.1 Visual impact
7.4.2 Health impact
7.4.3 Birds collisions
7.5 Conclusions
8 Economic Analysis
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Basic considerations
8.2 Financial mathematics
8.3 Methods of economic evaluation
8.3.1 Static methods (which do not take the opportunity cost into consideration)
8.3.2 Dynamic methods
8.3.3 Examples
8.4 Financial analysis of some European schemes
9. Administrative procedures
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Economic issues
9.3 How to support renewable energy under deregulation*
9.5.1 Set asides
9.2.2 Emission Taxes, Caps and Credits
9.2.3 Green pricing.
9.2.4 Imposed tariffs
9.2.5. Miscellaneous
9.3 Technical aspects
9.4 Procedural issues
9.5 Environmental constraints
GLOSSARY
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